(Footnotes)
An article published in
Ibrahim M. Abu-Rabi’ (ed.) (2006),
The Blackwell Companion to Contemporary Islamic Thought
Oxford: Blackwell Publishing
Chapter 11: pp. 195-212
The Blackwell Companion to Contemporary Islamic Thought reflects the variety of trends, voices, and opinions in the contemporary Muslim intellectual scene.
THE FUTURISTIC THOUGHT OF USTAZ ASHAARI
MUHAMMAD OF MALAYSIA
The Messianism of Ustaz Ashaari Muhammad - part 7
Notes and References:
1 For details on Darul Arqam’s material achievements, see Darul Arqam, 25 Years of Darul Arqam: The Struggle of Abuya Syeikh Imam Ashaari Muhammad at Tamimi (Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Abuya, 1993), chapter 13;
Muhammad Syukri Salleh, “An Ethical Approach to Development: The Arqam Philosophy and Achievements,” Humanomics, 10/1(1994), 25–60; “Allah’s Bounty: Al-Arqam sect draws strength from business empire,” Far Eastern Economic Review, September 1, 1994.
2 Rufaqa’ Corporation Sdn. Bhd. (profile), Rawang, n.d.; “Former Al-Arqam redefines itself,” New Sunday Times, April 30, 2000;
“Banned Al-Arqam cult thriving under business umbrella,” Straits Times, February
9, 2002;
Muhammad Syukri Salleh, “The Businesses of Islamic Movements in Malaysia” (Malay), Pemikir 31(2003), 142–8.
3 Ustaz Ashaari’s enforced expulsion to Labuan made headline news in Berita Harian, February 7, 2002.
On his success in Labuan, see: “Ashaari expands influence in Labuan” (Malay), Buletin Utama, April 21–24, 2002; “Residents plead that Asa’ari’s placing be revised” (Malay), Berita Harian, September 5, 2002;
“Al-Arqam followers’ lifestyles need to be monitored” (Malay), Berita Harian, November 28, 2002; “What is lost by Asyaari’s prosperity(Malay),http://www.harakahdaily.net/print.php?sid=3510.
4 For related issues, see Ahmad Fauzi Abdul Hamid, “Political Dimensions of Religious Conflict in Malaysia: State Response to an Islamic Movement,” Indonesia and the Malay World 28/80(2000), 32–65;
Ahmad Fauzi Abdul Hamid, “Sufi Undercurrents in Islamic Revivalism: Traditional, Post-Traditional and Modern Images of Islamic Activism in Malaysia – Part 2,” The Islamic Quarterly LXV/3(2001), 177–98;
Ahmad Fauzi Abdul Hamid, “Diverse Approaches to Rural Development in Malaysia: The FELDA and Darul Arqam Land Settlement Regimes,” Islamic Culture LXXV/2(2001), 57–92.
5 ‘Millenarianism’ refers to the belief in an awaited utopia on earth founded upon the predicted coming of a messiah. In the Christian context, “millenarianism” refers to the belief in the 1000 years when Christ will reign on earth, as foretold in the Book of Revelation. See Mohamed Yusoff Ismail, “The Mahdist Phenomenon is Universal”’ (Malay), Utusan Malaysia, July 21, 2000; Justus M. van der Kroef,
“The Messiah in Indonesia and Melanesia,” The Scientific Monthly, 75(1952), 161–5; Vittorio Lanternari, The Religions of the Oppressed: A Study of Modern Messianic Cults (New York: Alfred A.Knopf, 1963); and Ed Dobson and Ed Hindson, “Apocalypse Now? What Fundamentalists Believe About the End of the World,” Policy Review, 38(1986), 16–22. For reports on Doomsday cults, see “Inside the Cult of Death,” Time, April 7, 1997, and “Nostradamus Predicted that the World Would End this Summer: Why are so Many Japanese Taking him Seriously,” Time, July 5, 1999.
6 Literally, “al-Mahdi” means “the rightly guided one” and is also referred to as Al-Mahdi al-Muntazar, i.e. the Expected Mahdi. See Wilfred Madelung, “Al-Mahdi,” in The Encyclopaedia of Islam, vol. V, Charles E. Bosworth et al. (eds.) (Leiden: E.J. Brill), 1230–8; and Zeki Saritoprak, “The Mahdi Tradition in Islam:
A Social-Cognitive Approach,” Islamic Studies, 41/4(2002), 651. For hadiths on al-Mahdi, see Ibn Kathir, The Signs Before the Day of Judgement (London: Dar Al Taqwa, 1991), chapter 6; Abdullah ibn As-Siddiq,
Jesus, Al Mahdi and the Anti-Christ (New York: As-Siddiquyah Publishers, 1985); and Amin Muhammad Jamaluddin, The Armageddon War and the Advent of the Mahdi (Malay) (Kuala Lumpur: Pustaka Syuhada, 2001), chapter 3.
7 The Dajjal represents the Islamic version of the Antichrist: the epitome of evil who will tyrannically rule the world for 40 days before being slain by Jesus Christ. Unlike Christians, Muslims have never believed that Jesus was crucified. Instead, he was said to have been raised by God to the heavens at the same time that Judas, Jesus’ betrayer, was made to assume Jesus’ physical characteristics and ultimately died on the cross. The Dajjal will exert influence over the whole world, causing pandemonium for 40 days, entering every city except Mecca and Medina, tempting the world’s population to follow the false religion by performing miracles akin to magic, and leading the Jews into war against al-Mahdi. During this fifth of al-
Mahdi’s wars, Jesus Christ will descend onto earth, join al-Mahdi in battle and eventually kill the Dajjal.
Death of the Dajjal will be the apogee of al-Mahdi’s feat. After al-Mahdi’s seven wars, Gog and Magog appear. Gog and Magog are two Turkic tribes currently restrained behind a barrier built by Zulqarnain, the popular Islamic equivalent of Alexander the Great. Upon collapse of the barrier, Gog and Magog will disperse, spread corruption, destroy plants, and commit atrocities. God, in response to prayers said by Jesus, kills them by sending a kind of worm in the napes of their necks. For a chronicle of these eschatological events, see As-Siddiq, op. cit., chapter 3; Ibn Kathir, op. cit., 41ff; and Jamaluddin, op. cit., chapter 4, 184–206.
8 Sayyid Abul A’la Maududi, A Short History of the Revivalist Movement in Islam (Lahore: Islamic Publications, fifth edition, 1981), 33–4; Yohanan Friedmann, Prophecy Continuous: Aspects of Ahmadi Religious Thought and its Medieval Background (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989), chapter 4.
9 Derek Hopwood, “A Pattern of Revival Movements in Islam?,” Islamic Quarterly, 15/4(1971), 151.
Beliefs concerning the Expected Mahdi never became an essential part of the Sunni creed, unlike in the Shi’ite sect, whose historiography contains strong arguments and beliefs pertaining to various aspects of al-Mahdi.The subject matter on al-Mahdi is absent from the two most authentic hadith collections of Bukhari (d. 870) and Muslim (d. 875), such that medieval systematic theologians scrupulously avoided discussion on al-Mahdi. See H.A.R. Gibb and J.H. Kramers, Shorter Encyclopaedia of Islam (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1974), 310–11; Maududi, op. cit., 45–51; Madelung, op. cit., 1231, 1235; K.H. Sirajuddin Abbas, The Sunni Creed (Malay) (Kota Bharu: Pustaka Aman Press, sixth edition, 1991), 128; Saritoprak, op. cit., 673–4.
10 On Sufi conceptions of al-Mahdi, see Muhammad Labib Ahmad, Who is Imam Mahdi? (Malay) (Singapore: Pustaka Nasional, 1980), 29–31; and Saritoprak, op. cit., 659–60. For accounts of anti-colonial movements in peripheral Muslim lands, see Justus M. van der Kroef, “Javanese Messianic Expectations:
Their Origin and Cultural Context,” Comparative Studies in Society and History, 1(1959): 309; Lanternari, op. cit., 213–14; Edward Mortimer, Faith and Power: The Politics of Islam (London: Faber and Faber, 1982), 73–9. On the arbitrary division of Muslim lands into a center and periphery, see Ahmad Fauzi Abdul Hamid, “Islamic Resurgence: An Overview of Causal Factors, A Review of ‘Ummahtic’ Linkages,” IKIM
Journal, 9/1(2001), 30–8.
11 Al-Maududi, op. cit., 43–4, 147–9; Muhammad Labib Ahmad, op. cit., 32–45.
12 Aurad Muhammadiah refers to a tariqah (Sufi order) founded in Mecca in the early twentieth century by Shaykh Muhammad Abdullah Al-Suhaimi (b. 1259 AH), a scholar of Javanese-Arabic descent who moved to Singapore and eventually settled down in Kelang, Malaya. See Mohd Taha Suhaimi, The History of Syeikh Muhammad Suhaimi’s Life (Malay) (Singapore: Peripensis, 1990). Tariqah involves systematic chanting of dhikr (remembrances of God) as practiced by Sufis: practitioners of tasawwuf, i.e. the branch of knowledge in Islam enjoining the purification of the soul (tazkiyah al-nafs) in attaining the true meaning of God and the self. See Ashaari Muhammad, Aurad Muhammadiah: The Conviction of Darul Arqam (Malay) (Kuala Lumpur: Penerangan Al-Arqam, 1986), 10.
13 BAHEIS, An Explanation to the book ‘Aurad Muhammadiah: The Conviction of Darul Arqam’ (Malay) (Kuala Lumpur, 1986); BAHEIS, The Deviation of Darul Arqam’s Theology (Malay) (Kuala Lumpur, 1993); Ashaari Muhammad 1986, op. cit.; Ashaari Muhammad, Be Careful in Making Allegations (Malay), (Kuala Lumpur: Penerangan Al-Arqam, 1989); Berita Harian, July 16, 1994; The Star, August 6, 1994.
14 Sufis regard yaqazah with the late Prophet Muhammad as a karamah (miracle) accorded to the awliya’ (saints) (Ashaari Muhammad 1986, op.cit., chapter 6). In the Aurad Muhammadiah, the practitioner acknowledges, after the conventional kalimah shahadah, the additional figures of the righteous caliphs viz. Abu Bakr (d. 635), Umar (d.6 44), Uthman (d. 656), and Ali (d.661), and of the future al-Mahdi (ibid.,
chapter 9). Tawassul refers to the practice of invoking intermediaries, usually saints, when making do’a (supplication) to God. The issue of the permissibility of tawassul has long been a source of contention between Islamic traditionalists, who allow it,and Islamic modernists, who forbid it; see Sirajuddin Abbas, op. cit.,
284–301, 316–26. Tahlil refers to religious chantings that testify that Allah is the One and Only God. The tahlil of Aurad Muhammadiah refers to specific chantings recited rhythmically in congregation by practitioners of the Aurad Muhammadiah on Thursday and Sunday nights, and include the controversial phrases: “O Saints of God, do listen, help us for the sake of God, do listen” (Ashaari Muhammad 1986, op.
cit., 119–27, 143–51).
15 Ashaari Muhammad, Who is the Mujaddid of the Fifteenth Century? (Malay) (Kuala Lumpur: Penerangan Al-Arqam, 1987), 648–54; Ashaari Muhammad, My Contemplations (Malay) (Kuala Lumpur: Penerangan Al-Arqam, 1988), 257.
16 Mohd. Taha Suhaimi, op. cit., 67, Ashaari Muhammad 1986, op. cit., 178; Ashaari Muhammad 1989, op. cit., 48–9, 84.
17 Ashaari Muhammad 1986, op. cit., 179–80; Ashaari Muhammad 1989, op. cit., 50–1. The People of the Cave refer to seven unitarian Christian youths who fled from the persecution of the Roman Emperor Decius (reigned 249–51 AD), ending up in a cave in Asia Minor where they were put to sleep for 309 years. Their story is told in the Qur’an (Al-Kahf 18: 9–26). In a hadith narrated by Ibnu Abbas, the People of the Cave are said to be the assistants of al-Mahdi, such that they must now be in occultation waiting for the realization of their eschatological role. On the contrasting Twelver Shi’ite view of al-Mahdi’s occultation, see Sirajuddin Abbas, op. cit. 127–8.
18 On Tamim al-Dari’s encounter with the Dajjal, see Ibn Kathir, op. cit., 48–51, and David J. Halperin, “The Ibn Sayyad Traditions and the Legend of Al-Dajjal,” Journal of the American Oriental Society, 96(1976), 223. On Shaykh Hasan al-Iraqi’s encounter with al-Mahdi, see Ashaari Muhammad 1986, op. cit., 171–3; and Madelung, op. cit., 1236–37.
19 Ahmad Fauzi Abdul Hamid, The Malaysian State of the Youth of Bani Tamim: Secrets of the Glorious Ummah (Malay) (Kuala Lumpur: Abuku Hebat, 1999), 115; Ashaari Muhammad, Exploring the Islamic Administrative System (Malay) (Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Hikmah, 1993), 188, 200.
20 The previous two quotations are from Ashaari Muhammad, Allah’s Schedule for the Muslim Ummah (Kuala Lumpur: Bahagian Pengeluaran Minda Syeikhul Arqam, 1993), 38–40.
21 Ibid., 41–3; Darul Arqam, Message from the East, 18–20; Ahmad Fauzi Abdul Hamid, The Malaysian State of the Youth of Bani Tamim, 124–6. In support, often quoted is the hadith, “A people will come out of the East who will pave the way for the Mahdi” (Ibn Kathir, op. cit., 22).
22 Ashaari Muhammad, The Implementation of Hudud Law in Society (Malay) (Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Hikmah, 1992), 88–97; Ahmad Fauzi Abdul Hamid, The Malaysian State of the Youth of Bani Tamim, chapter 4.
23 Ashaari Muhammad, Thoughts to Change Attitudes (Malay) (Kuala Lumpur: Penerangan Al-Arqam, 1990), 249–55; Ashaari Muhammad, Allah’s Schedule, 30–1; Ashaari Muhammad, President Soeharto Follows the Schedule of Allah (Malay) (Kuala Lumpur: Penerbitan Abuya, 1993), 11–12.
24 Ashaari Muhammad, Allah’s Schedule, 42–3; cf. Ahmad Fauzi Abdul Hamid, “The Malay-Islamic World in the Thought of Ustaz Ashaari Muhammad,” in Proceedings of The Second International Malay Studies Conference, Volume 1 (Malay), Abdullah Hassan (ed.), (Kuala Lumpur: DBP, 2002), 10–12.
25 Darul Arqam, 25 Years of Darul Arqam, 175–7. Overall, Ustaz Ashaari’s theory concurs with the hadith, “Islam will return to its place of origin like a snake returning to its hole,” as quoted in Darul Arqam 1992, op. cit., 4.
26 Ashaari Muhammad 1987, op. cit., xiv, 43.
27 Darul Arqam, Al-Arqam in the International Media (Malay) (Kuala Lumpur: Penerangan Al-Arqam, 1989). For details on Darul Arqam’s expenditure, human capital, and assets in Southeast Asia, see Darul Arqam, 25 Years of Darul Arqam, 184, 186, 198; and Muhammad Syukri Salleh 1994, op. cit., 36, 44–5, 48–50.
28 Ashaari Muhammad, Strides of the Struggle (Malay) (Kuala Lumpur: Jabatan Syeikhul Arqam, 1991), chapter 12; Ashaari Muhammad, Presiden Soeharto Follows Allah’s Schedule.
29 On the Ustaz Ashaari-Abdurrahman Wahid meeting, see Kebenaran, 7/1 (1999), quoting from the magazines Tempo, October 24, 1999, and DR, 11/XXXI/25, October 1999. For Rufaqa’ Indonesia’s success stories, see the five-page report in the Jakarta-based magazine, Gatra, 2–3/10, December 2003. Two Indonesian books promoting Ustaz Ashaari’s thought are Abu Muhammad Atta’, The Youth of Bani Tamim: The Precursor of Imam Al-Mahdi (Malay-Indonesian) (Jakarta: Penerbit Giliran Timur, 1998) and Abdurrahman R.Effendi and Gina Puspita, Abuya Syeikh Imam Ashaari Muhammad At Tamimi: Is He the Mujaddid of This Century? (Malay-Indonesian) (Jakarta: Penerbit Giliran Timur, 2003).
30 Ustaz Ashaari believes that Ghafar Baba has a significant role to play in “Allah’s Schedule”. See Ahmad Fauzi Abdul Hamid, “Reforming PAS?,” Aliran Monthly 23/6(2003), 13. On the USA’s weakening from within, see Ahmad Fauzi Abdul Hamid 2002, op. cit., 13. On Ustaz Ashaari’s predictions pertaining to Anwar Ibrahim, see Shuib Sulaiman, PM Dr. Mahathir on the Brink of Downfall (Malay) (n.p.: Merbok
Enterprise, 1994), 40, 70, 84–92; and Zabidi Mohamed, Tersungkur di Pintu ‘Syurga’: The Untold Truth and Inside Story of Al-Arqam and I.S.A. (Detention Without Trial) (Kuala Lumpur: Zabidi Publication, 1998), 151.
31 Greg Barton, “Neo-Modernism: A Vital Synthesis of Traditionalist and Modernist Islamic Thought in Indonesia,” Studia Islamika 2/3(1995), 1–75; Greg Barton, “Indonesia’s Nurcholish Madjid and Abdurrahman Wahid as Intellectual ulama: The Meeting of Islamic Traditionalism and Modernism in neo-Modernist Thought,” Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations 8/3(1997), 323–50.
32 Quoted in Ashaari Muhammad 1987, op. cit., 3; and Ashaari Muhammad, Allah’s Schedule, 31; cf.Saritoprak, op. cit., 659.
33 Muhammad Nejatullah Siddiqi, “Towards Regeneration: Shifting Priorities in Islamic Movements,” Encounters: Journal of Inter-Cultural Perspectives 1/2(1995),24.
The End
Tuesday, February 06, 2007
COMPANION TO CONTEMPORARY ISLAMIC THOUGHT Part 8
An article published in
Ibrahim M. Abu-Rabi’ (ed.) (2006),
The Blackwell Companion to Contemporary Islamic Thought
Oxford: Blackwell Publishing
Chapter 11: pp. 195-212
The Blackwell Companion to Contemporary Islamic Thought reflects the variety of trends, voices, and opinions in the contemporary Muslim intellectual scene.
THE FUTURISTIC THOUGHT OF USTAZ ASHAARI
MUHAMMAD OF MALAYSIA
The Messianism of Ustaz Ashaari Muhammad - part 6
Conclusion
Ustaz Ashaari’s thought represents a unique blend of Sufi traditionalism and progressive reformism characteristic of modernist Islamic thought. While devoted to the practice of Aurad Muhammadiah, Ustaz Ashaari’s Sufism was not a separate discipline to be pursued for innate spiritual values and mystical experiences. Instead, Sufism is the vehicle to transform individual selves towards perfection as members of the Ummah actively implementing Islam as a comprehensive way of life. Ustaz Ashaari’s messianism rejects a complacent attitude towards the future, as had been feared by the modernists, but rather encourages economic activism as a preparation for the better times ahead promised by the advent of a mujaddid. Ustaz Ashaari’s educational background and doctrinal standpoints are avowedly traditionalist, yet, his views and actions in implementing them hardly subscribes to the traditionalist “closing of the door of ijtihad” doctrine. If we take two Indonesian organizations, Muhammadiyyah and Nahdlatul Ulama (NU), as extreme and opposing poles in a spectrum of Southeast Asian Islamic thought, Ustaz Ashaari lies somewhere in the middle. He is neither a modernist in the manner of Muhammadiyyah, nor a traditionalist in the style of NU. But veering closer towards traditionalism, he is best described as a neo-traditionalist, just as Abdurrahman Wahid of NU has been called a neo-modernist.31 The cordial, if brief, meeting between Abdurrahman and Ustaz Ashaari in 1999, referred to above, adds substance to the existence of a confluence of ideas in contemporary Southeast Asian Islamic thought. The coming together of traditionalism and modernism may never have been closer than in the most recent times.
Among Malaysian Islamic thinkers, Ustaz Ashaari distinguishes himself as being the most futuristic, in a peculiarly most Malaysian-oriented manner. Admittedly, futuristic thought has been part of the cultures of nations which strive to be progressive. It is in the spirit of Islam to be forward-looking, as shown by the Qur’an: “The Romans have been defeated, in a land close by, but they, (even) after (this) defeat of theirs, will soon be victorious….” (Ar Rum 30: 2–3). This spirit is a far cry from the romanticism that has developed in Muslim reflections on the history of the Ummah, contributing to its protracted decline. While this fact is accepted by Islamic scholars, hardly any have come forward with a critically futuristic perspective of the course of the Ummah. Ustaz Ashaari arguably offers such a perspective.
Notwithstanding the political controversy it has aroused, Ustaz Ashaari’s futuristic thought should have been valued as an immense intellectual contribution to Islamic thought in general, and to Islamic eschatology in particular. Based on the huge body of eschatological hadiths, Ustaz Ashaari offers fresh interpretations, which, in legal matters, would have amounted to the practice of ijtihad. Very different from philosophers whose scholarly theories are left to successive generations to interpret and realize them, Ustaz Ashaari himself mobilizes people towards the
accomplishment of his messianic theories. In doing this, he is able to make sure that the principles of his thought are adhered to without misrepresentation. His followers have been taught to strive for the qualities as mentioned in the hadith: “There will always be a ta’ifah (community) from amongst my Ummah, that will practice the way of truth, they will not be destroyed by their detractors, until the Day of Judgment.” They are utterly convinced that theirs is the path of God. Combined together, futuristic thought and action by convinced devotees become potentially subversive, and find ready enemies within the existing political establishment.
Ironically, since Ustaz Ashaari’s prolonged detention, scholars have come forward with ideas similar to Ustaz Ashaari’s theory of “Malay leadership of the Ummah.” For example, Hilmy Bakar Almascaty, an Indonesian formerly at Malaysia’s International Islamic University (IIUM), came up in 1994 with the book The Malay Ummah: The New World Power of the Twenty-First Century (Malay), which asserted the potential of Malay-Muslims and outlined the planning required of them to lead the Islamic resurgence in the coming millennium. Professor Hashim Musa of the University of Malaya, in a Berita Harian (April 24, 2001) article, “Malays Should Bear the Duty of Preserving Islamic Civilization” (Malay), argued: “Malay-Muslims, almost half a billion in number, form the largest Muslim group in the East. In the history of Islamic civilization, the center constantly changes, from Arabia to Turkey, North Africa, Spain and Central Asia. Now signs show that the center has begun to shift to the East. Are we, the Malay-Muslims, as the biggest Muslim group in the East, prepared to bear the responsibility and trust in maintaining and contributing towards the rebuilding of an Islamic civilization of global standard in this third millennium?” Similar remarks concluded his paper, “The Empowerment of Malay Civilization as the Basis for Constructing a Malaysian Civilization” (Malay), presented at the Second International Malay Studies Conference in Beijing, China, in October 2002.
Within the Ummah, the feasibility of Ustaz Ashaari’s theory can be deducted from the following recognition of Southeast Asian Muslims by Muhammad Nejatullah Siddiqi, an eminent Saudi Arabian-based economist:
The Muslims of South East Asia – of Malaysia, Indonesia, and possibly the Muslim minorities in resurgent China – are better equipped to lead the process of regeneration than the rest of the Muslim world. They are uncommitted to any powers. They are unconstrained by promises to keep and debts to repay. Their approach to Islam is simple and elementary – something which besides its disadvantages also keeps them away from the strangulating hold of a scholarship unfit to lead in the
modern world. They can learn. Many others can hardly so. And most important of all, they are already on the road to economic prosperity, security and strength – something which may elude other Muslim countries for a long time to come.33
An article published in
Ibrahim M. Abu-Rabi’ (ed.) (2006),
The Blackwell Companion to Contemporary Islamic Thought
Oxford: Blackwell Publishing
Chapter 11: pp. 195-212
The Blackwell Companion to Contemporary Islamic Thought reflects the variety of trends, voices, and opinions in the contemporary Muslim intellectual scene.
THE FUTURISTIC THOUGHT OF USTAZ ASHAARI
MUHAMMAD OF MALAYSIA
The Messianism of Ustaz Ashaari Muhammad - part 6
Conclusion
Ustaz Ashaari’s thought represents a unique blend of Sufi traditionalism and progressive reformism characteristic of modernist Islamic thought. While devoted to the practice of Aurad Muhammadiah, Ustaz Ashaari’s Sufism was not a separate discipline to be pursued for innate spiritual values and mystical experiences. Instead, Sufism is the vehicle to transform individual selves towards perfection as members of the Ummah actively implementing Islam as a comprehensive way of life. Ustaz Ashaari’s messianism rejects a complacent attitude towards the future, as had been feared by the modernists, but rather encourages economic activism as a preparation for the better times ahead promised by the advent of a mujaddid. Ustaz Ashaari’s educational background and doctrinal standpoints are avowedly traditionalist, yet, his views and actions in implementing them hardly subscribes to the traditionalist “closing of the door of ijtihad” doctrine. If we take two Indonesian organizations, Muhammadiyyah and Nahdlatul Ulama (NU), as extreme and opposing poles in a spectrum of Southeast Asian Islamic thought, Ustaz Ashaari lies somewhere in the middle. He is neither a modernist in the manner of Muhammadiyyah, nor a traditionalist in the style of NU. But veering closer towards traditionalism, he is best described as a neo-traditionalist, just as Abdurrahman Wahid of NU has been called a neo-modernist.31 The cordial, if brief, meeting between Abdurrahman and Ustaz Ashaari in 1999, referred to above, adds substance to the existence of a confluence of ideas in contemporary Southeast Asian Islamic thought. The coming together of traditionalism and modernism may never have been closer than in the most recent times.
Among Malaysian Islamic thinkers, Ustaz Ashaari distinguishes himself as being the most futuristic, in a peculiarly most Malaysian-oriented manner. Admittedly, futuristic thought has been part of the cultures of nations which strive to be progressive. It is in the spirit of Islam to be forward-looking, as shown by the Qur’an: “The Romans have been defeated, in a land close by, but they, (even) after (this) defeat of theirs, will soon be victorious….” (Ar Rum 30: 2–3). This spirit is a far cry from the romanticism that has developed in Muslim reflections on the history of the Ummah, contributing to its protracted decline. While this fact is accepted by Islamic scholars, hardly any have come forward with a critically futuristic perspective of the course of the Ummah. Ustaz Ashaari arguably offers such a perspective.
Notwithstanding the political controversy it has aroused, Ustaz Ashaari’s futuristic thought should have been valued as an immense intellectual contribution to Islamic thought in general, and to Islamic eschatology in particular. Based on the huge body of eschatological hadiths, Ustaz Ashaari offers fresh interpretations, which, in legal matters, would have amounted to the practice of ijtihad. Very different from philosophers whose scholarly theories are left to successive generations to interpret and realize them, Ustaz Ashaari himself mobilizes people towards the
accomplishment of his messianic theories. In doing this, he is able to make sure that the principles of his thought are adhered to without misrepresentation. His followers have been taught to strive for the qualities as mentioned in the hadith: “There will always be a ta’ifah (community) from amongst my Ummah, that will practice the way of truth, they will not be destroyed by their detractors, until the Day of Judgment.” They are utterly convinced that theirs is the path of God. Combined together, futuristic thought and action by convinced devotees become potentially subversive, and find ready enemies within the existing political establishment.
Ironically, since Ustaz Ashaari’s prolonged detention, scholars have come forward with ideas similar to Ustaz Ashaari’s theory of “Malay leadership of the Ummah.” For example, Hilmy Bakar Almascaty, an Indonesian formerly at Malaysia’s International Islamic University (IIUM), came up in 1994 with the book The Malay Ummah: The New World Power of the Twenty-First Century (Malay), which asserted the potential of Malay-Muslims and outlined the planning required of them to lead the Islamic resurgence in the coming millennium. Professor Hashim Musa of the University of Malaya, in a Berita Harian (April 24, 2001) article, “Malays Should Bear the Duty of Preserving Islamic Civilization” (Malay), argued: “Malay-Muslims, almost half a billion in number, form the largest Muslim group in the East. In the history of Islamic civilization, the center constantly changes, from Arabia to Turkey, North Africa, Spain and Central Asia. Now signs show that the center has begun to shift to the East. Are we, the Malay-Muslims, as the biggest Muslim group in the East, prepared to bear the responsibility and trust in maintaining and contributing towards the rebuilding of an Islamic civilization of global standard in this third millennium?” Similar remarks concluded his paper, “The Empowerment of Malay Civilization as the Basis for Constructing a Malaysian Civilization” (Malay), presented at the Second International Malay Studies Conference in Beijing, China, in October 2002.
Within the Ummah, the feasibility of Ustaz Ashaari’s theory can be deducted from the following recognition of Southeast Asian Muslims by Muhammad Nejatullah Siddiqi, an eminent Saudi Arabian-based economist:
The Muslims of South East Asia – of Malaysia, Indonesia, and possibly the Muslim minorities in resurgent China – are better equipped to lead the process of regeneration than the rest of the Muslim world. They are uncommitted to any powers. They are unconstrained by promises to keep and debts to repay. Their approach to Islam is simple and elementary – something which besides its disadvantages also keeps them away from the strangulating hold of a scholarship unfit to lead in the
modern world. They can learn. Many others can hardly so. And most important of all, they are already on the road to economic prosperity, security and strength – something which may elude other Muslim countries for a long time to come.33
COMPANION TO CONTEMPORARY ISLAMIC THOUGHT Part 7
An article published in
Ibrahim M. Abu-Rabi’ (ed.) (2006),
The Blackwell Companion to Contemporary Islamic Thought
Oxford: Blackwell Publishing
Chapter 11: pp. 195-212
The Blackwell Companion to Contemporary Islamic Thought reflects the variety of trends, voices, and opinions in the contemporary Muslim intellectual scene.
THE FUTURISTIC THOUGHT OF USTAZ ASHAARI
MUHAMMAD OF MALAYSIA
The Messianism of Ustaz Ashaari Muhammad - part 5
The Southeast Asian Connection
Darul Arqam’s influential presence in neighboring countries in Southeast Asia since embarking on its international era in the 1980s has been well documented.27 Ustaz Ashaari’s protracted sojourn abroad (1988–94) resulted in the expansion of Darul Arqam’s influence to Central Asia, the Middle East, and Europe, particularly the United Kingdom and France. Large sections of Darul Arqam publications were increasingly devoted to colorful pieces of coverage of overseas visits by Darul Arqam leaders and their meetings with journalists, intellectuals, government officials, and political leaders from, among others, Thailand, Indonesia, the Philippines, Turkey, Jordan, China, and Uzbekistan. Sizable Darul Arqam communities developed in these countries, but everywhere, in line with Ustaz Ashaari’s theory of Malay leadership of the Ummah, leadership of the overseas bases and settlements remained in the hands of Malays, many of whom were students. Following among the non-Malay local populations was modest.
The heavily transnational orientation in Darul Arqam’s map enabled Ustaz Ashaari to elaborate his political principles and global ambitions without restraint, reaching a crescendo in 1994, and ultimately prompting the Malaysian political establishment to demand his extradition and detention under the ISA. Notwithstanding his extensively transcontinental travels, Southeast Asia’s pivotal position in Ustaz Ashaari’s geo-political thought and agenda was irreplaceable.
Dividing the world into three zones, viz. the tropical areas such as Southeast Asia, the dry and rough areas such as the Middle East, and the four-season areas such as the West, he analyzed each zone in terms of its peoples’ varied attitudes and cultures. Southeast Asians’ gentleness, conditioned by its mild climate, made them receptive to truth even at a time when the Islamic empires have fallen. Ustaz Ashaari praised President Suharto of Indonesia for his latest tilt towards Islam, and interpreted such changes as indicative of his place in “Allah’s Schedule” as the forerunner to Ratu Adil (Just Prince), the popular Indonesian equivalent of al-Mahdi.
As a measure of its success in Southeast Asian neighboring countries, the repression of Darul Arqam was lamented by the countries’ grassroots population, especially those who had benefited from its investments and social work. Cordial relations were cemented through mixed marriages between Darul Arqam’s Malaysian and non-Malaysian nationals. At the national level, only the Brunei government followed the Malaysian government’s line of declaring Darul Arqam an illegal entity. In Indonesia and Thailand, Ustaz Ashaari’s followers freely continue their business and educational activities. Their publications continue to propagate messianic messages from Ustaz Ashaari, whose version of “Allah’s Schedule” remains the central theme in his overseas followers’ transnational priorities. The coverage by these foreign-based publications shows that Ustaz Ashaari’s political clout and stature overseas is significant. For example, Jakarta-based Kebenaran revealed the meeting between Abdurrahman Wahid and Ustaz Ashaari in the latter’s home in Bandar Country Homes, Rawang, during which Abdurrahman consulted Ustaz Ashaari on the prudence of his candidacy in the 1999 Indonesian presidential election. It is from Rufaqa’ Indonesia, whose economic success has been phenomenal, that books pushing through Ustaz Ashaari’s messianic thought are being produced and distributed to Malaysia.29
In Labuan, Ustaz Ashaari continues to receive visitors from all walks of life and nationalities. Foreign scholars have included Dr. Abdussalam Harras from Morocco (May 2002), Shaykh Abdul Ghafur from Uzbekistan (October 2002) and Dr. Imaduddin Abdurrahim, an Indonesian modernist (April 2003). The author’s examination of notes taken from meetings between Ustaz Ashaari and his business directors reveal that the future roles of Southeast Asia in general and of Malaysia in particular remain important in his messianic thought. For example, among Rufaqa’ members, the meeting between Ustaz Ashaari Muhammad and Shaykh Abdul Ghafur in Labuan has been touted as the historic encounter between the youth of Bani Tamim and al-Harith Harrath, signifying al Mahdi’s imminence.
Although messianism does not surpass taqwa as the priority in Ustaz Ashaari’s struggle, it bolsters his followers’ conviction, especially when contemporary events are linked to his prognostications. These include predictions of Anwar Ibrahim’s entry into the ruling party and government, of the Soviet Union’s downfall, of the decline of Khomeini’s influence in Iran after 10 years, and of the persistence of the Iraq–US war. Prior to Anwar Ibrahim’s shocking dismissal as Deputy Prime Minister in 1998, Ustaz Ashaari had told Anwar that he would fail in his quest to become Prime Minister. As to the recent global scenario, the terrorist threat to the USA’s own soil as exemplified by the deadly attacks on the World Trade Center and Pentagon on September 11, 2001, has been taken to verify Ustaz Ashaari’s prediction that “America would be weakened from within.” However, Dr. Mahathir’s resignation as Prime Minister and replacement by Abdullah Ahmad Badawi in 2003, severely tested Ustaz Ashaari’s followers’ conviction, as Ustaz Ashaari was known to have held the belief that Ghafar Baba, the once Deputy Prime Minister (1987–93), would eventually become Prime Minister amidst internal political turmoil.
An article published in
Ibrahim M. Abu-Rabi’ (ed.) (2006),
The Blackwell Companion to Contemporary Islamic Thought
Oxford: Blackwell Publishing
Chapter 11: pp. 195-212
The Blackwell Companion to Contemporary Islamic Thought reflects the variety of trends, voices, and opinions in the contemporary Muslim intellectual scene.
THE FUTURISTIC THOUGHT OF USTAZ ASHAARI
MUHAMMAD OF MALAYSIA
The Messianism of Ustaz Ashaari Muhammad - part 5
The Southeast Asian Connection
Darul Arqam’s influential presence in neighboring countries in Southeast Asia since embarking on its international era in the 1980s has been well documented.27 Ustaz Ashaari’s protracted sojourn abroad (1988–94) resulted in the expansion of Darul Arqam’s influence to Central Asia, the Middle East, and Europe, particularly the United Kingdom and France. Large sections of Darul Arqam publications were increasingly devoted to colorful pieces of coverage of overseas visits by Darul Arqam leaders and their meetings with journalists, intellectuals, government officials, and political leaders from, among others, Thailand, Indonesia, the Philippines, Turkey, Jordan, China, and Uzbekistan. Sizable Darul Arqam communities developed in these countries, but everywhere, in line with Ustaz Ashaari’s theory of Malay leadership of the Ummah, leadership of the overseas bases and settlements remained in the hands of Malays, many of whom were students. Following among the non-Malay local populations was modest.
The heavily transnational orientation in Darul Arqam’s map enabled Ustaz Ashaari to elaborate his political principles and global ambitions without restraint, reaching a crescendo in 1994, and ultimately prompting the Malaysian political establishment to demand his extradition and detention under the ISA. Notwithstanding his extensively transcontinental travels, Southeast Asia’s pivotal position in Ustaz Ashaari’s geo-political thought and agenda was irreplaceable.
Dividing the world into three zones, viz. the tropical areas such as Southeast Asia, the dry and rough areas such as the Middle East, and the four-season areas such as the West, he analyzed each zone in terms of its peoples’ varied attitudes and cultures. Southeast Asians’ gentleness, conditioned by its mild climate, made them receptive to truth even at a time when the Islamic empires have fallen. Ustaz Ashaari praised President Suharto of Indonesia for his latest tilt towards Islam, and interpreted such changes as indicative of his place in “Allah’s Schedule” as the forerunner to Ratu Adil (Just Prince), the popular Indonesian equivalent of al-Mahdi.
As a measure of its success in Southeast Asian neighboring countries, the repression of Darul Arqam was lamented by the countries’ grassroots population, especially those who had benefited from its investments and social work. Cordial relations were cemented through mixed marriages between Darul Arqam’s Malaysian and non-Malaysian nationals. At the national level, only the Brunei government followed the Malaysian government’s line of declaring Darul Arqam an illegal entity. In Indonesia and Thailand, Ustaz Ashaari’s followers freely continue their business and educational activities. Their publications continue to propagate messianic messages from Ustaz Ashaari, whose version of “Allah’s Schedule” remains the central theme in his overseas followers’ transnational priorities. The coverage by these foreign-based publications shows that Ustaz Ashaari’s political clout and stature overseas is significant. For example, Jakarta-based Kebenaran revealed the meeting between Abdurrahman Wahid and Ustaz Ashaari in the latter’s home in Bandar Country Homes, Rawang, during which Abdurrahman consulted Ustaz Ashaari on the prudence of his candidacy in the 1999 Indonesian presidential election. It is from Rufaqa’ Indonesia, whose economic success has been phenomenal, that books pushing through Ustaz Ashaari’s messianic thought are being produced and distributed to Malaysia.29
In Labuan, Ustaz Ashaari continues to receive visitors from all walks of life and nationalities. Foreign scholars have included Dr. Abdussalam Harras from Morocco (May 2002), Shaykh Abdul Ghafur from Uzbekistan (October 2002) and Dr. Imaduddin Abdurrahim, an Indonesian modernist (April 2003). The author’s examination of notes taken from meetings between Ustaz Ashaari and his business directors reveal that the future roles of Southeast Asia in general and of Malaysia in particular remain important in his messianic thought. For example, among Rufaqa’ members, the meeting between Ustaz Ashaari Muhammad and Shaykh Abdul Ghafur in Labuan has been touted as the historic encounter between the youth of Bani Tamim and al-Harith Harrath, signifying al Mahdi’s imminence.
Although messianism does not surpass taqwa as the priority in Ustaz Ashaari’s struggle, it bolsters his followers’ conviction, especially when contemporary events are linked to his prognostications. These include predictions of Anwar Ibrahim’s entry into the ruling party and government, of the Soviet Union’s downfall, of the decline of Khomeini’s influence in Iran after 10 years, and of the persistence of the Iraq–US war. Prior to Anwar Ibrahim’s shocking dismissal as Deputy Prime Minister in 1998, Ustaz Ashaari had told Anwar that he would fail in his quest to become Prime Minister. As to the recent global scenario, the terrorist threat to the USA’s own soil as exemplified by the deadly attacks on the World Trade Center and Pentagon on September 11, 2001, has been taken to verify Ustaz Ashaari’s prediction that “America would be weakened from within.” However, Dr. Mahathir’s resignation as Prime Minister and replacement by Abdullah Ahmad Badawi in 2003, severely tested Ustaz Ashaari’s followers’ conviction, as Ustaz Ashaari was known to have held the belief that Ghafar Baba, the once Deputy Prime Minister (1987–93), would eventually become Prime Minister amidst internal political turmoil.
COMPANION TO CONTEMPORARY ISLAMIC THOUGHT (6)
COMPANION TO CONTEMPORARY ISLAMIC THOUGHT (6)
An article published in
Ibrahim M. Abu-Rabi’ (ed.) (2006),
The Blackwell Companion to Contemporary Islamic Thought
Oxford: Blackwell Publishing
Chapter 11: pp. 195-212
The Blackwell Companion to Contemporary Islamic Thought reflects the variety of trends, voices, and opinions in the contemporary Muslim intellectual scene.
THE FUTURISTIC THOUGHT OF USTAZ ASHAARI
MUHAMMAD OF MALAYSIA
The Messianism of Ustaz Ashaari Muhammad - part 4
Ustaz Ashaari earnestly espouses the theory of the reverse flow of Islamic resurgence: that the ultimate revival of the Ummah will be generated from the periphery towards the Islamic heartlands of the Middle East. In Ustaz Ashaari’s geographical map, the ikhwan from Southeast Asia will bring Islam to asoibs – followers of al-Mahdi, but lower in rank to the ikhwan, in Khurasan – an area interpreted as a long stretch of land encompassing most of Afghanistan and Uzbekistan, parts of Iran and Pakistan, and extending until the region of Yunnan in China. While the numbers of ikhwan reach a maximum of 500, asoibs may approach thousands in quantity. Not restricted to Khurasan, asoibs may also be found in the East. Hence Southeast Asia and Khurasan function as the pulse and backbone respectively of the Islamic resurgence. The meeting between the youth of Bani Tamim and al-Harith Harrath – al-Mahdi’s guide in his mission of returning Islam to Mecca, is regarded as portending an imminent coming of al-Mahdi. The widely publicized trips made by Darul Arqam to Uzbekistan and Yunnan in 1992–3 were part of exploratory expeditions into Khurasan in search of al-Harith Harrath and asoibs. In conjunction with the launching of its “Khurasan Operation,” Darul Arqam inaugurated its International Center in Islamabad, Pakistan in January 1992. The scenario above has been detailed out:
From this base, Darul Arqam concocts plans and strategies to explore Khurasan further, especially Uzbekistan, since a lot of hadiths on the period near the end of time are related to Uzbekistan. For instance, the hadiths on the fortunate land of ma waraa un nahar, asoibs, al-Harith Harrath, and the unfurling of the Black Banner, which signify the near coming of Imam Mahdi. Ma waraa un nahar – the land behind the river, according to the ulama is situated between Samarqand and Bukhara. More accurately, ma waraa un nahar is situated in Termez, a small town at the side of the Amu Darya river [in Uzbekistan].... It is here that asoibs are being prepared. According to signs of hadith, asoibs in Uzbekistan will combine forces with Islamic strivers from the East especially, and also with Islamic activists from other parts of the world. Then they will move together to Syam [Greater Syria]. From there, they will proceed to Haramayn: the Forbidden Lands of Mecca and Medina.
Imam Ashaari at-Tamimi is convinced that if the revival of Islam at the end of time can be portrayed as a human body, the East is the pulse (life) while Khurasan is the backbone. In other words, the East acts as the initiator and leader of the resurgence, and Khurasan becomes its supporter and prime auxiliary. The East–Khurasan combination, or specifically, the joining of forces between asoibs from the East under al-Mansur (the man of Bani Tamim) and the chosen asoib (leader of asoibs)
from Khurasan, viz. Al-Harith Harrath.... [is] the closest sign of the advent of the supreme leader, Imam Mahdi. With the fall of Russia and the weakening of America, Islam is gradually on the rise. Each step of decline of the infidel system is accompanied by a step of rise of Islam.... happening especially in Malaysia. This is exuberating news to be relished by the East, Khurasan and the entire world. Now it is the East’s turn to lead the promised revival. This is what Imam Ashaari at-Tamimi
and Darul Arqam have been trying to prove.
Needless to say, Ustaz Ashaari does openly aspire to become the youth of Bani Tamim, the precursor of al-Mahdi, and does encourage his followers, and Malay-Muslims in general, to accomplish the dignified status of the ikhwan, and failing that, asoibs. In fact, he has taken action in what he understands would trigger events unleashing God’s eschatological schedule which he calls “Allah’s schedule for Muslim Ummah”: the title of a bilingual tract published in 1993 in conjunction with Darul Arqam’s Silver Jubilee celebrations. The millenarian activity of establishing the youth of Bani Tamim as Malaysia’s political leader and al-Mahdi as the leader of the Ummah has been checked temporarily by the confinement of Ustaz Ashaari and state repression of his followers. As the “head” of the fifteenth Islamic century draws to a close, very little time is left for Ustaz Ashaari to realize his eschatological schedule. By Ustaz Ashaari’s own count, the “head” of a century, during which a mujaddid is promised, comprises a period of 25 years.
An article published in
Ibrahim M. Abu-Rabi’ (ed.) (2006),
The Blackwell Companion to Contemporary Islamic Thought
Oxford: Blackwell Publishing
Chapter 11: pp. 195-212
The Blackwell Companion to Contemporary Islamic Thought reflects the variety of trends, voices, and opinions in the contemporary Muslim intellectual scene.
THE FUTURISTIC THOUGHT OF USTAZ ASHAARI
MUHAMMAD OF MALAYSIA
The Messianism of Ustaz Ashaari Muhammad - part 4
Ustaz Ashaari earnestly espouses the theory of the reverse flow of Islamic resurgence: that the ultimate revival of the Ummah will be generated from the periphery towards the Islamic heartlands of the Middle East. In Ustaz Ashaari’s geographical map, the ikhwan from Southeast Asia will bring Islam to asoibs – followers of al-Mahdi, but lower in rank to the ikhwan, in Khurasan – an area interpreted as a long stretch of land encompassing most of Afghanistan and Uzbekistan, parts of Iran and Pakistan, and extending until the region of Yunnan in China. While the numbers of ikhwan reach a maximum of 500, asoibs may approach thousands in quantity. Not restricted to Khurasan, asoibs may also be found in the East. Hence Southeast Asia and Khurasan function as the pulse and backbone respectively of the Islamic resurgence. The meeting between the youth of Bani Tamim and al-Harith Harrath – al-Mahdi’s guide in his mission of returning Islam to Mecca, is regarded as portending an imminent coming of al-Mahdi. The widely publicized trips made by Darul Arqam to Uzbekistan and Yunnan in 1992–3 were part of exploratory expeditions into Khurasan in search of al-Harith Harrath and asoibs. In conjunction with the launching of its “Khurasan Operation,” Darul Arqam inaugurated its International Center in Islamabad, Pakistan in January 1992. The scenario above has been detailed out:
From this base, Darul Arqam concocts plans and strategies to explore Khurasan further, especially Uzbekistan, since a lot of hadiths on the period near the end of time are related to Uzbekistan. For instance, the hadiths on the fortunate land of ma waraa un nahar, asoibs, al-Harith Harrath, and the unfurling of the Black Banner, which signify the near coming of Imam Mahdi. Ma waraa un nahar – the land behind the river, according to the ulama is situated between Samarqand and Bukhara. More accurately, ma waraa un nahar is situated in Termez, a small town at the side of the Amu Darya river [in Uzbekistan].... It is here that asoibs are being prepared. According to signs of hadith, asoibs in Uzbekistan will combine forces with Islamic strivers from the East especially, and also with Islamic activists from other parts of the world. Then they will move together to Syam [Greater Syria]. From there, they will proceed to Haramayn: the Forbidden Lands of Mecca and Medina.
Imam Ashaari at-Tamimi is convinced that if the revival of Islam at the end of time can be portrayed as a human body, the East is the pulse (life) while Khurasan is the backbone. In other words, the East acts as the initiator and leader of the resurgence, and Khurasan becomes its supporter and prime auxiliary. The East–Khurasan combination, or specifically, the joining of forces between asoibs from the East under al-Mansur (the man of Bani Tamim) and the chosen asoib (leader of asoibs)
from Khurasan, viz. Al-Harith Harrath.... [is] the closest sign of the advent of the supreme leader, Imam Mahdi. With the fall of Russia and the weakening of America, Islam is gradually on the rise. Each step of decline of the infidel system is accompanied by a step of rise of Islam.... happening especially in Malaysia. This is exuberating news to be relished by the East, Khurasan and the entire world. Now it is the East’s turn to lead the promised revival. This is what Imam Ashaari at-Tamimi
and Darul Arqam have been trying to prove.
Needless to say, Ustaz Ashaari does openly aspire to become the youth of Bani Tamim, the precursor of al-Mahdi, and does encourage his followers, and Malay-Muslims in general, to accomplish the dignified status of the ikhwan, and failing that, asoibs. In fact, he has taken action in what he understands would trigger events unleashing God’s eschatological schedule which he calls “Allah’s schedule for Muslim Ummah”: the title of a bilingual tract published in 1993 in conjunction with Darul Arqam’s Silver Jubilee celebrations. The millenarian activity of establishing the youth of Bani Tamim as Malaysia’s political leader and al-Mahdi as the leader of the Ummah has been checked temporarily by the confinement of Ustaz Ashaari and state repression of his followers. As the “head” of the fifteenth Islamic century draws to a close, very little time is left for Ustaz Ashaari to realize his eschatological schedule. By Ustaz Ashaari’s own count, the “head” of a century, during which a mujaddid is promised, comprises a period of 25 years.
Subscribe to:
Posts (Atom)